PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
In Freudian psychology,
psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual
drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido
(sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the oral, the anal,
the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous
zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. Sigmund Freud proposed that if
the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to any psychosexual developmental
stage, he or she would experience anxiety that would persist into adulthood as
a neurosis, a functional mental disorder.
Contents
•1 Background
•2 Freudian psychosexual development ◦2.1 Oral stage
◦2.2 Anal stage
◦2.3 Phallic stage
◦2.4 Latency stage
◦2.5 Genital stage
•3 Criticisms ◦3.1 Scientific
◦3.2 Feminist
◦3.3 Anthropologic
•4 Medical sexological model
•5 See also
•6 References
Background
The neurologist Sigmund Freud, c. 1921.
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
observed that during the predictable stages of early childhood development, the
child's behavior is oriented towards certain parts of his or her body, e.g. the
mouth during breast-feeding, the anus during toilet-training. He argued that
adult neurosis (functional mental disorder) often is rooted in childhood
sexuality, and consequently suggested that neurotic adult behaviors are
manifestations of childhood sexual fantasy and desire. That is because human
beings are born "polymorphously perverse", infants can derive sexual
pleasure from any part of their bodies, and that socialization directs the
instinctual libidinal drives into adult heterosexuality.[3] Given the
predictable timeline of childhood behavior, he proposed "libido
development" as a model of normal childhood sexual development, wherein
the child progresses through five psychosexual stages – the oral; the anal; the
phallic; the latent; and the genital – in which the source pleasure is in a
different erogenous zone.
Freudian psychosexual development
Sexual infantilism: in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido
(sexual drive), the child might experience failure (parental and societal
disapproval) and thus might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. To
avoid anxiety, the child becomes fixated, preoccupied with the psychological
themes related to the erogenous zone in question, which persist into adulthood,
and underlie the personality and psychopathology of the man or woman, as
neurosis, hysteria, personality disorders, et cetera.
Oral Birth–1 year Mouth Orally
aggressive: chewing gum and the ends of pencils, etc.
Orally passive: smoking, eating, kissing, oral
sexual practices [4]
Oral stage fixation might result in a passive,
gullible, immature, manipulative personality.
Anal 1–3 years Bowel and bladder
elimination Anal retentive: Obsessively organized, or excessively neat
Anal expulsive: reckless,
careless, defiant, disorganized, coprophiliac
Phallic 3–6 years Genitalia
Oedipus complex (in boys and girls); according to Sigmund Freud.
Electra complex (in girls); according
to Carl Jung.
Latency 6–puberty dormant sexual feelings
Sexual unfulfillment if fixation occurs in this stage.
Genital Puberty–death Sexual
interests mature Frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships
Oral stage
The first stage of psychosexual
development is the oral stage, spanning from birth until the age of one year,
wherein the infant's mouth is the focus of libidinal gratification derived from
the pleasure of feeding at the mother's breast, and from the oral exploration
of his or her environment, i.e. the tendency to place objects in the mouth. The
id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed,
and, since the infant has no personality (identity), every action is based upon
the pleasure principle. Nonetheless, the infantile ego is forming during the
oral stage; two factors contribute to its formation: (i) in developing a body
image, he or she is discrete from the external world, e.g. the child
understands pain when it is applied to his or her body, thus identifying the
physical boundaries between body and environment; (ii) experiencing delayed
gratification leads to understanding that specific behaviors satisfy some
needs, e.g. crying gratifies certain needs.
Weaning is the key experience in
the infant's oral stage of psychosexual development, his or her first feeling
of loss consequent to losing the physical intimacy of feeding at mother's
breast. Yet, weaning increases the infant's self-awareness that he or she does
not control the environment, and thus learns of delayed gratification, which
leads to the formation of the capacities for independence (awareness of the
limits of the self) and trust (behaviors leading to gratification). Yet,
thwarting of the oral-stage — too much or too little gratification of desire —
might lead to an oral-stage fixation, characterized by passivity, gullibility,
immaturity, unrealistic optimism, which is manifested in a manipulative
personality consequent to ego malformation. In the case of too much
gratification, the child does not learn that he or she does not control the
environment, and that gratification is not always immediate, thereby forming an
immature personality. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might
become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, despite
having produced the gratifying behavior.
Anal stage
The second stage of psychosexual
development is the anal stage, spanning from the age of eighteen months to
three years, wherein the infant's erogenous zone changes from the mouth (the
upper digestive tract) to the anus (the lower digestive tract), while the ego
formation continues. Toilet training is the child's key anal-stage experience,
occurring at about the age of two years, and results in conflict between the Id
(demanding immediate gratification) and the Ego (demanding delayed
gratification) in eliminating bodily wastes, and handling related activities
(e.g. manipulating excrement, coping with parental demands). The style of
parenting influences the resolution of the Id–Ego conflict, which can be either
gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and
psychologically traumatic. The ideal resolution of the Id–Ego conflict is in
the child's adjusting to moderate parental demands that teach the value and
importance of physical cleanliness and environmental order, thus producing a
self-controlled adult. Yet, if the parents make immoderate demands of the
child, by over-emphasizing toilet training, it might lead to the development of
a compulsive personality, a person too concerned with neatness and order. If
the child obeys the Id, and the parents yield, he or she might develop a
self-indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness and
environmental disorder. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply,
but might develop a weak sense of self, because it was the parents' will, and
not the child's ego, who controlled the toilet training.
Phallic stage
The third stage of psychosexual
development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three to six years,
wherein the child's genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. It is in
this third infantile development stage that children become aware of their
bodies, the bodies of other children, and the bodies of their parents; they gratify
physical curiosity by undressing and exploring each other and their genitals,
and so learn the physical (sexual) differences between "male" and
"female" and the gender differences between "boy" and
"girl". In the phallic stage, a boy's decisive psychosexual
experience is the Oedipus complex, his son–father competition for possession of
mother. This psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythological
character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually
possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the phallic stage, a girl's
decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex, her daughter–mother
competition for psychosexual possession of father. This psychological complex
derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythological character Electra, who
plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against Clytemnestra,
their mother, and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of Agamemnon,
their father, (cf. Electra, by Sophocles).
Initially, Freud equally applied
the Oedipus complex to the psychosexual development of boys and girls, but
later developed the female aspects of the theory as the feminine Oedipus
attitude and the negative Oedipus complex;[9] yet, it was his
student–collaborator, Carl Jung, who coined the term Electra complex in
1913.[10][11] Nonetheless, Freud rejected Jung's term as psychoanalytically
inaccurate: "that what we have said about the Oedipus complex applies with
complete strictness to the male child only, and that we are right in rejecting
the term 'Electra complex', which seeks to emphasize the analogy between the
attitude of the two sexes".[12][13]
Oedipus complex: Oedipus explains
the riddle of the Sphinx, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. (ca. 1805)
Electra complex: Electra at the
Tomb of Agamemnon, by Frederic Leighton, c.1869
Oedipus: Despite mother being the parent who primarily gratifies
the child's desires, the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity —
"boy", "girl" — that alters the dynamics of the parent and
child relationship; the parents become the focus of infantile libidinal energy.
The boy focuses his libido (sexual desire) upon his mother, and focuses
jealousy and emotional rivalry against his father — because it is he who sleeps
with mother. To facilitate uniting him with his mother, the boy's id wants to
kill father (as did Oedipus), but the ego, pragmatically based upon the reality
principle, knows that the father is the stronger of the two males competing to
possess the one female. Nevertheless, the boy remains ambivalent about his
father's place in the family, which is manifested as fear of castration by the
physically greater father; the fear is an irrational, subconscious
manifestation of the infantile Id.
Electra: Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop
penis envy that is rooted in anatomic fact: without a penis, she cannot
sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a result, the girl
redirects her desire for sexual union upon father; thus, she progresses towards
heterosexual femininity that culminates in bearing a child who replaces the
absent penis. Moreover, after the phallic stage, the girl's psychosexual
development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile
clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girl's Oedipal conflict
to be more emotionally intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially, in a
submissive woman of insecure personality.[15]
Psychological defense: In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide
transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the
drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of
memories, emotional impulses, and ideas from the conscious mind; yet it does
not resolve the Id–Ego conflict. The second defense mechanism is
Identification, by which the child incorporates, to his or her ego, the
personality characteristics of the same-sex parent; in so adapting, the boy
diminishes his castration anxiety, because his likeness to father protects him from
father's wrath as a rival for mother; by so adapting, the girl facilitates
identifying with mother, who understands that, in being females, neither of
them possesses a penis, and thus they are not antagonists. [16]
Dénouement: Unresolved psychosexual competition for the
opposite-sex parent might produce a phallic-stage fixation leading a girl to
become a woman who continually strives to dominate men (viz. penis envy),
either as an unusually seductive woman (high self-esteem) or as an unusually
submissive woman (low self-esteem). In a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might
lead him to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. Therefore, the
satisfactory parental handling and resolution of the Oedipus complex and of the
Electra complex are most important in developing the infantile super-ego,
because, by identifying with a parent,
the child internalizes morality, thereby, choosing to comply with societal
rules, rather than having to reflexively comply in fear of punishment.
Latency stage
The fourth stage of psychosexual
development is the latency stage that spans from the age of six years until
puberty, wherein the child consolidates the character habits he or she
developed in the three, earlier stages of psychological and sexual development.
Whether or not the child has successfully resolved the oedipal conflict, the
instinctual drives of the id are inaccessible to the Ego, because his or her
defense mechanisms repressed them during the phallic stage. Hence, because said
drives are latent (hidden) and gratification is delayed — unlike during the
preceding oral, anal, and phallic stages — the child must derive the pleasure
of gratification from secondary process-thinking that directs the libidinal drives towards external activities, such as
schooling, friendships, hobbies, etc. Any neuroses established during the
fourth, latent stage, of psychosexual development might derive from the
inadequate resolution either of the Oedipus conflict or of the Ego's failure to
direct his or her energies towards socially acceptable activities.
Genital stage
The fifth stage of psychosexual
development is the genital stage that spans puberty through adult life, and
thus represents most of a person's life; its purpose is the psychological
detachment and independence from the parents. The genital stage affords the
person the ability to confront and resolve his or her remaining psychosexual
childhood conflicts. As in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered
upon the genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than
solitary and infantile. The psychological difference between the phallic and
genital stages is that the ego is established in the latter; the person's
concern shifts from primary-drive gratification (instinct) to applying
secondary process-thinking to gratify desire symbolically and intellectually by
means of friendships, a love relationship, family and adult responsibilities.
Scientific Criticisms
A usual criticism of the
scientific (experimental) validity of the Freudian psychology theory of human
psychosexual development is that Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was personally
fixated upon human sexuality, therefore, he favored defining human development
with a normative theory of psychological and sexual development.[17] Hence, the
phallic stage proved controversial, for being based upon clinical observations
of the Oedipus complex.
In Analysis of a Phobia in a
Five-year-old Boy (1909), the case study of the boy "Little Hans"
(Herbert Graf, 1903–73) who was afflicted with equinophobia, the relation
between Hans's fears - of horses and of father - derived from external factors
such as the birth of his sister, and internal factors like the desire of the
infantile id to replace father as companion to mother, as well as guilt for
enjoying the masturbation normal to a boy of his age. Moreover, his admitting
to wanting to procreate with mother was considered proof of the boy's sexual
attraction to the opposite-sex parent; he was a heterosexual male. Yet, the boy
Hans was unable to relate fearing horses to fearing his father. The
psychoanalyst Freud noted that "Hans had to be told many things that he
could not say himself" and that "he had to be presented with
thoughts, which he had, so far, shown no signs of possessing".
Many Freud critics believe the
memories and fantasies of childhood seduction Freud reported were not real
memories but constructs that Freud created and forced upon his patients.
According to Frederick Crews, the seduction theory that Freud abandoned in the
late 1890s acted as a precedent to the wave of false allegations of childhood
sexual abuse in the 1980s and 1990s.[18]
Feminist
Contemporaneously, Sigmund
Freud's psychosexual development theory is criticized as sexist, because it was
informed with his introspection (self-analysis). To integrate the female libido
(sexual desire) to psychosexual development, he proposed that girls develop
"penis envy". In response, the German Neo-Freudian psychoanalyst
Karen Horney, counter-proposed that girls instead develop "Power envy",
rather than penis envy. She further proposed the concept of "womb and
vagina envy", the male's envy of the female ability to bear children; yet,
contemporary formulations further develop said envy from the biologic
(child-bearing) to the psychological (nurturance), envy of women's perceived
right to be the kind parent.[19]
Anthropologic
Psychosexual development:
Bronisław Malinowski and natives, Trobriand Islands (1918).
Contemporary criticism also
questions the universality of the Freudian theory of personality (Id, Ego, Super-ego)
discussed in the essay On Narcissism (1914), wherein he said that "it is
impossible to suppose that a unity, comparable to the ego can exist in the
individual from the very start". Contemporary cultural considerations have
questioned the normative presumptions of the Freudian psychodynamic perspective
that posits the son–father conflict of the oedipal complex as universal and
essential to human psychological development.
The anthropologist Bronisław
Malinowski's studies of the Trobriand islanders challenged the Freudian
proposal that psychosexual development (e.g. the Oedipus complex) was
universal. He reported that in the insular matriarchal society of the
Trobriand, boys are disciplined by their maternal uncles, not their fathers;
impartial, avuncular discipline. In Sex and Repression in Savage Society
(1927), Malinowski reported that boys dreamed of feared uncles, not of beloved
fathers, thus, Power — not sexual jealousy — is the source of oedipal conflict
in such non–Western societies. In Human Behavior in Global Perspective: an
Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology (1999), Marshall H. Segall et al.
propose that Freud based the theory of psychosexual development upon a
misinterpretation.[20] Furthermore, contemporary research confirms that
although personality traits corresponding to the oral stage, the anal stage,
the phallic stage, the latent stage, and the genital stage are observable, they
remain undetermined as fixed stages of childhood, and as adult personality
traits derived from childhood.[21]
Medical sexological model
Modern scientific ideas about
psychosexual development were reflected in the Medical Sexological Model,[22]
which was formulated by the Ukrainian scientist Vyacheslav Kholodny in 2014.
Postulates of this Model:
1. Psychosexual development
includes constituents: sexual consciousness, stereotype of gender role and
psychosexual orientations (orientation of a libido and ways of its
realization).
2. The libido contains
conceptual, Platonic, erotic and sexual components.
3. Constituents and Components
are formed through a phase of position formation and a realization phase.
4. There are content (semantic,
scenario) and body elements in the Model.
Erik Erikson
By Saul McLeod twitter icon
published 2008, updated 2015
Although Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
was schooled in the psychoanalytic tradition his view of personality shifts the
emphasis from the id to the ego, from biology to culture and from psychosexual
stages to the problem of identity.
Like Anna Freud (Sigmund Freud’s daughter) he
was particularly interested in child development. In 1933 he immigrated to
America where he set up practice as a child analyst in Boston. There he
developed the view that it is not “anatomy that is destiny” (Freud’s opinion)
but the influence of society which is crucial in shaping the person we become.
Erik Erikson (1950, 1963) does
not talk about psychosexual Stages, he discusses psychosocial stages.
His ideas though were greatly influenced by
Freud, going along with Freud’s (1923) theory regarding the structure and
topography of personality.
However, whereas Freud was an id
psychologist, Erikson was an ego psychologist. He emphasized the role of
culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego
itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between the id and the superego.
According to Erikson, the ego
develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in
nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a
sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the
future.
Erikson extends on Freudian
thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic of the ego,
and expanding the notion of the stages of personality development to include
the entire lifespan.
Erikson proposed a lifespan model
of development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three
further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is
still plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s
life. Erikson put a great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it
was a crucial stage for developing a person’s identity.
Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson
maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon
each previous stage. This is called the epigamic principle.
The outcome of this 'maturation
timetable' is a wide and integrated set of life skills and abilities that function
together within the autonomous individual. However, instead of focusing on
sexual development (like Freud), he was interested in how children socialize
and how this affects their sense of self.
Psychosocial Stages
Erikson’s (1959) theory of
psychosocial development has eight distinct stages.
Like Freud, Erikson assumes that
a crises occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson (1963), these crises
are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the
individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
According to the theory,
successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which
the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete
a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved
successfully at a later time.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Is the world a safe place or is
it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson's first psychosocial
crisis occurs during the first year or so of life (like Freud's oral stage of
psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.
During this stage the infant is
uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of
uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and
consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives
is consistent, predictable and reliable they will develop a sense of trust
which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to
feel secure even when threatened.
Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope
that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be
there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead
to the development of fear.
For example, if the care has been
harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable then the infant will
develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around
them or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic
sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety,
heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around
them.
Consistent with Erikson's views
on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how
the quality of early experience of attachment can effect relationships with
others in later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The child is developing
physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three,
children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother,
picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to
wear, to eat, etc.
The child is discovering that he
or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes,
playing with toys etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow
their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging
environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's
clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try
until they succeed or ask for assistance.
So, the parents need to encourage
the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the
child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required
from the parent.... they must try not to do everything for the child but if the
child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures
and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self-control
without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are
encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more
confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized,
overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they
begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become
overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or
doubt in their own abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Around age three and continuing
to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly
lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992) it is
a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as
aggressive".
During this period the primary
feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school.
Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to
explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan
activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their
ability to lead others and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is
squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of
guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain
followers, lacking in self-initiative.
The child takes initiatives which
the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child
will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the
parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the
child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If
the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing
or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have
feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child
slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is,
of course, necessary otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control
or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between
initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of purpose.
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
Children are at the stage (aged 5
to 12 yrs) where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to make
things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s
life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the
child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major
source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval
by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and
reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel
confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to
feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or
her potential.
If the child cannot develop the
specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they
may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the
child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and
modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
During adolescence (age 12 to 18
yrs), the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children
are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of
career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong
to a society and fit in.
This is a major stage in
development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult.
It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and
try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities
are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what
should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what
one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage
the body image of the adolescent changes.
Erikson claims that the
adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can
adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to
commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others even when there
may be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore
possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of
their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society
("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role
confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or
identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles
(e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an
identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative
identity, and in addition to this feelings of unhappiness.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Occurring in young adulthood
(ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others.
We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone
other than a family member.
Successful completion of this
stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety,
and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
During middle adulthood (ages 40
to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin
our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
We give back to society through
raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations.
By failing to achieve these
objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of care.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and
become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life
as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as
leading a successful life.
Erik Erikson believed if we see
our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop
despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life
with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Critical Evaluation
Erikson is rather vague about the
causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have in order to
successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to
another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
Indeed, Erikson (1964)
acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and
emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this
development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the
outcome of one psychosocial stages influence personality at a later stage.
One of the strengths of Erikson's
theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across
the entire lifespan. Freud, it will be remembered, considered psychological
development to be more or less complete by adolescence. Erikson argues that
significant changes occur in later life. His view has been particularly
influential in raising our awareness of issues such as the psychological
consequences of the menopause, of retirement and of ageing. Indeed the very
idea of a “mid-life crisis” can be interpreted as an aspect of Erikson’s claim
that the psychosocial dilemma of middle age is the conflict between
generativity and stagnation.
Although support for Erikson's
stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory
provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality
development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).
References and Further Reading
Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing
child. London: HarperCollins.
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood
and society. New York: Norton.
Erickson, E. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis
and history. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (Ed.). (1963).
Youth: Change and challenge. Basic books.
Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight
and responsibility. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity:
Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H., Paul, I. H.,
Heider, F., & Gardner, R. W. (1959). Psychological issues (Vol. 1).
International Universities Press.
Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P.
(1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour. London: Hodder &
Stoughton.
Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the
id. SE, 19: 1-66.
McAdams, D. P. (2001). The
psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P.
T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American
Psychologist, 52(5), 509.
Nice one nnam
ReplyDelete